TIPS for English (j) Grammar i)

Grammar TIPS (i) 

Punctuation

The proper use of commas

 

Using commas in lists

You need to put a comma between the different items in a list, as in the following sentences:

e.g., Sunday morning started with an omelet, bacon, and sausage breakfast.

e.g., In my vegetable garden, I grow lettuces, cabbages, onions, and carrots.

The final comma in these lists (before the word ‘and’) is known as the ‘serial comma’ or ‘the Oxford comma,’ as it is used by the Oxford dictionaries. Not all writers use it. Using it can make your meaning clearer.

 e.g., ‘My favorite breakfast is coffee, omelet, sausage, bacon and cheese.’

Is ‘bacon’ one of my favorites and ‘cheese’ another, or is it ‘bacon and cheese’ that I like?

Adding an Oxford comma clarifies the meaning: ‘My favorite breakfast is coffee, omelet, sausage, bacon, and cheese.’

 

Using commas to separate clauses

We use commas to separate clauses in a complex sentence (consisting of the main clause and 1 or more subordinate clauses).

e.g., ‘Having had dinner (main clause), I went to the bedroom’ (subordinate clause)

e.g., ‘I first met your mother in New York (main clause), where I lived as a student’ (subordinate clause - relative clause)

If the commas were removed, these sentences would not be as clear, but the meaning would still be the same.

A subordinate clause that begins with ‘who,’ ‘which,’ ‘that,’ ‘whom,’ or ‘where’ is known as a relative clause

e.g., British Airways passengers who have children may board the airplane first (the relative clause is underlined).

The above sentence contains a ‘restrictive relative clause’ that contains information important to the meaning of the sentence as a whole. If you omit it, the sentence will not make much sense. For example, if you removed the relative clause from the example above, the whole point of that sentence would be lost, and the meaning will be confusing: ‘Passengers of British Airways may board the aircraft first.’ So, you should NOT put commas around a restrictive relative clause.

 

The other type of subordinate clause is called a ‘non-restrictive clause’ and begins with ‘who,’ ‘which,’ ‘whom,’ etc. They contain information that is not essential to the overall meaning of a sentence. 

For example, Samantha, who has a young son, has a full-time job in the restaurant (the relative clause is underlined).

If you remove this clause, the sentence's meaning is NOT affected, and it still makes sense. If you omit it, we just lose insignificant extra information about Samantha, who has a full-time job in the restaurant. So, you must put a comma before and after a non-restrictive relative clause.

 

Using commas to mark off parts of a sentence

Commas separate a part of a sentence that is NOT part of the main statement but can be omitted without changing the meaning.

e.g., The second installment (1) of the Star Wars sequel trilogy, ‘The Last Jedi,’ is released next month. ((1) installment = any of several parts of something which are published, broadcast, or made public in a sequence at intervals)

e.g., Gunpowder is not, of course, a chemical compound.

In these sentences, commas - as in non-restrictive relative clauses mentioned above - mark off information that is NOT essential to the overall meaning. Using commas in this way can help clarify a sentence's meaning.

e.g., ‘Mary’s son, James, is a biologist.’ 

The use of commas tells us that Mary has only one son. If you removed ‘James’ from the sentence, there is no doubt who the biologist is: ‘Mary’s son is a biologist.’

If you rewrite the original sentence without commas, its meaning changes: ‘Mary’s son James is a biologist.’ The lack of commas shows that the name ‘Mary’ is crucial to understanding the sentence. It says that Mary has more than one son, so the name of the one who is a biologist needs to be specified for the meaning to be clear.

If you aren’t sure whether you’ve used a pair of commas correctly, you may try replacing them with brackets or removing the information enclosed by the commas altogether and then see if the sentence is still understandable or conveys the meaning you want to say.

Using a comma to separate independent clauses linked with coordinating conjunctions.

If you have two separate sentences but want to make them one (a compound sentence), use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to link them.  The comma should be placed in front of the coordinating conjunction.

e.g., ‘George was a good English teacher, and he taught me a lot about how to write essays.’

The above sentence can be separated into two sentences:  George was a good English teacher. He taught me a lot about how to write essays. Using 2 different clauses is also acceptable, but if you want to connect them into one compound sentence, a comma and coordinating conjunction are needed to make the sentence grammatically correct.

You should NOT place a comma before a coordinating conjunction when it is used to LINK words or phrases.

Example1:

Wrong: ‘I like both English, and French.’

Correct: ‘I like both English and French.’ (no comma needed)

Example2:

Wrong: He looked nervously, but was not.

Correct: He looked nervously but was not. (no comma needed)

The 2nd example with a comma before 'but' is a common mistake

 

Using a comma at the end of an introductory element.

An introductory element begins a sentence by transitioning from the last sentence or background information before the independent clause. Introductory elements come in prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, and transitional expressions.  When one of these is used at the beginning of a sentence, a comma should be placed after it.

e.g., In a hard football match, the Liverpool team prevailed after two overtimes (overtime = extra time played at the end of a game tied at the end of the regulation time). 

(In a hard football match = prepositional phrase)

e.g., ‘Because I did well on my writing part 2, I should be able to pass the IELTS exams’ (Because I did well on my writing part 2 = subordinate clause)

e.g., For example, counselors offer consultation that can benefit college students (For example = transitional expression)

 

A comma is NOT always needed after short prepositional phrases or subordinate clauses when omitting, it does NOT confuse the reader.  However, using a comma after even a short prepositional phrase or subordinate clause is not wrong, so if in doubt, you may use it.

Using a comma to set off nonessential elements.

A nonessential element is a word, phrase, or clause not needed to complete a sentence.  So, it can be removed, and the sentence still makes sense and is grammatically correct.  But if removing the element changes the meaning of the sentence, it is essential.  Nonessential elements need to be separated by commas, both before and after.

e.g., ‘I went to the cinema with my sons, Jim and Peter, and then we went to McDonald’s for dinner.’

e.g., His best friend, George, is planning a Christmas surprise party.

 

Using a comma with ‘however’

You should use a comma after ‘however’ when ‘however’ means ‘by contrast’ or ‘on the other hand’

e.g., However, a good agreement should satisfy both sides and not only the creditors.

 

Do NOT use a comma after however when it means ‘in whatever way’:

e.g., However you look at it, creditors are likely to lose out.

 

Using a comma to separate multiple adjectives.

If more than one adjective is used in a sentence (coordinate adjectives), separate them with commas or use ‘and.’

e.g., He was a tall, handsome man.

e.g., His shiny, red, luxurious car has impressed his friends.

 

Using a comma to introduce a quotation.

We use a comma to introduce a quotation.

e.g., He said, ‘I appreciate your enthusiasm to participate in the research.’

 

Using a comma with addresses, dates, and long numbers

When using addresses in a sentence, whether specific or not, a comma should be placed between the street and city, between the city and the state, and at the end of the address.

e.g., Berkeley University is in Berkeley, California.

e.g., Use the address: 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, United States, for any mail that needs to be sent to Stanford University. (CA is California; United States may be abbreviated to the USA)

 

When using a specific date in a sentence, a comma should be placed between the day and the year and after the year.

e.g., September 1, 2019, is the day I began my first semester at the university.

e.g., The signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, led to the founding of the USA.

 

When using long dates in writing, place a comma every thousandth place or separate numbers into groups of three, beginning on the right.

e.g., Denver is called the mile-high city because it is approximately 5,300 feet above sea level.

e.g., ‘My new post will pay me a salary of $30,000 yearly’.

 

Using a comma before a conjunction

A comma should be used before the following coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so to separate two independent clauses.

e.g., ‘My wife is an excellent cook, but she would never be as good as my mother.’

e.g., ‘I did not like my neighbors, so I never called them in my home.’

 

A common mistake is to put the comma after the conjunction.

It is not usually necessary to use a comma with the conjunction ‘because.’

e.g., The police asked us to leave the house because the wildfire was approaching.

e.g., ‘I am not hungry because I had already eaten a double burger with French fries (= potatoes cut into strips and deep-fried).’

 

However, there are cases when a clause with ‘because’ needs to start with a comma to avoid any confusion of meaning.

e.g., ‘I knew my uncle would not be hungry, because he works in a diner (1) and I had seen him earlier in the McDonald’s.’ 

In this example, the reason for the uncle not being hungry has nothing to do with him working in a diner, as might be indicated if the comma was omitted.

((1) diner (pronounced ˈdaɪ.nə(r)) = a small roadside restaurant with a long counter and booths)

 

Comma and Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs are words that join independent clauses into one sentence, for example: accordingly, also, besides, consequently, finally, however, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, otherwise, still, therefore, then, etc. When you use a conjunctive adverb, you need to use a SEMICOLON (;) before it and a comma (,) after it.

e.g., They have many different sizes of these pants; however, it comes in only one color.

e.g., It snowed hard; moreover, water pipes broke because of the frozen water.

e.g., The children fell asleep; then, my sister came by unannounced.

 

When a conjunctive adverb is used in a single main clause, a comma (,) is used to separate the conjunctive adverb from the sentence.

e.g., ‘I woke up early this morning. Nevertheless, I wasn’t in the mood to go to school.’

e.g., ‘My son John wants a Nerf gun as a Christmas present. Meanwhile, his sister Ann wants a Barbie doll for Xmas.’

 

Using a comma after ‘also’

When ‘also’ is connected to a free-standing sentence, then you need to use a comma after it.

e.g., Paulo Coelho writes novels with a distinctive style. Also, his storyline is breathtaking, making his books immensely (= to a great extent, extremely) popular.   

Here the rest of the sentence can stand on its own without ‘also.’

 

But, if ‘also’ is part of a complement in an inverted sentence pattern, then you do NOT need to put a comma after it.

e.g., Cristiano Ronaldo will play in Real Madrid’s latest Liga outing. Also on the roster (1) is Sergio Ramos.

In this example, ‘also’ is part of the phrase ‘on the roster.’ The normal structure of this sentence would be, ‘Sergio Ramos is also on the roster.’ The second sentence can stand independently without ‘also’: ‘On the roster is Sergio Ramos. However, ‘also’ is a part of that phrase that makes up the subject complement.

((1) roster = a list of members of a team or organization, in particular of sports players available for team selection)

 

Comma and Correlative Pairs of Conjunctions

Correlative pairs of conjunctions include words such as:

not only…but also

either…or

neither…nor

both…and

whether…or

When pairs or sets of conjunctions are used, they do NOT need to be separated by a comma.

e.g., Either the blue shirt or the yellow blouse (pronounced ˈblaʊz) will look good with your red skirt.

e.g., ‘I can’t decide whether to eat a fillet mignon or a Caesar salad.’

 

If commas are necessary to start a nonrestrictive clause, they may be used between the correlative pairs of conjunctions.

e.g., Neither the job as a waitress, which paid a low wage, nor the babysitting job interested me.

Here the correlative conjunction pair ‘neither…nor’ are separated by the two commas necessary to offset the nonrestrictive clause ‘which paid a low wage,’

Commas may also separate correlative conjunction pairs when the comma separates two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction. This is common with the correlative conjunction ‘not only…but also.’

e.g., Not only did I need a textbook, but I also needed a tablet for my university class (here, we also have an inversion).

Here we see that when part of a correlative conjunction pair doubles as a coordinating conjunction, a comma precedes it. Additionally, the subject of the independent clause (‘I,’ in the above example) also separates the ‘but’ and ‘also’ in the above example.

 

Use of semicolons (;)

Semicolons are followed by a lower-case letter unless that letter would ordinarily be capitalized mid-sentence (e.g. the word "I," acronyms/initialisms, or proper nouns, such as the words "Tottenham Hotspur" or "Oakland").  The rules recommend no space before them and one space after. They also typically recommend placing semicolons outside ending quotation marks.

 

Using semicolon:

A semicolon marks a break that is stronger than a comma but NOT as final as a full stop. It is used between two main clauses that balance each other and are too closely linked to separate sentences:

e.g., The highway runs through a wonderful wooden valley; the railway line follows it.

e.g., ‘A geologist searched North America; I went to the Galapagos Islands.’

 

A semicolon is used between items in a series or listing containing internal punctuation, especially parenthetic commas, where the function of the semicolon as serial commas: 

e.g., The people present were Jim, a man from the US; George, the doctor’s son; and Sam, an ill-mannered man.

e.g., McDonald’s fast-food restaurants can be found in the following cities: London, England; Paris, France; Madrid, Spain.

e.g., Here are three examples of simple sequences: one, two, and three; a, b, and c; first, second, and third.

e.g., (Fig. 9; see also plates in Smithson 1951, 1960; Schultz 1987).

 

A semicolon is used between closely related independent clauses NOT conjoined with coordinating conjunction when the two clauses are balanced, opposed, or contradictory:

e.g., ‘My wife would like orange juice; I prefer tea.’

e.g., ‘I went to the NFL arena; I was told it was closed for renovation.’

e.g., ‘I told Peter he’s running for the hills; I wonder if he knew I was joking.’

 

A semicolon is used when either clause may include commas; this is especially common when the parallel wording is omitted from the second:

e.g. David has two dogs; Max, one.

 

A semicolon is used when a comma replaces a period (full stop) in a quotation or when a quotation otherwise links two independent sentences:

e.g., ‘I have no use for this,’ he said; ‘you are welcome to it.’

e.g., ‘Is this your book?’ he asked; ‘I found it on the bookcase.’

 

You can also use a semicolon as a stronger division in a sentence that already contains commas:

e.g., The study showed the following: 60 percent of surveyed companies monitor employee internet-surfing activities, with 70 percent blocking access to unauthorized internet sites; over two-thirds of the companies monitor employee internet usage; half reported storing and reviewing employee emails; 60 percent monitor employee phone behavior, including the inappropriate use of voicemail.

 

Hyphen vs. Dash

 

Using the Hyphen (-)

The hyphen (-) is a small mark or bar that always demonstrates that what it is attached to does not make up a word.

An important rule is that there are NO white spaces on both ends of the hyphen.

The most common use of hyphen is to create compound words (a compound word is a word that is made up of two or more words):

e.g., back-to-back, anti-aircraft system, one-way street, well-known actor, seventy-six.

The hyphen prevents confusion and makes the new compound word easier to read. However, you should NOT hyphenate to join the words AFTER a noun:

e.g., The actor was well known.

e.g., The street only went one way.

 

You should be clear and use the hyphen when it is necessary!

The hyphen and word splitting

While there should never be white spaces on both ends of a hyphen, there are times when a white space can be placed on one end of a hyphen: when a word is split up at the end of a line:

e.g., Major Daniels had become the first person ever to reach inter-

stellar space.

 

Double-barreled names

The hyphen is often used to write ‘double-barreled’ names:

e.g., Catherine Zeta-Jones, Jean-Claude van Dam.

 

But some people like Sarah Jessica Parker, David Lloyd George, and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis prefer their names to be written without the hyphen.

So, the individual's preference should be considered and used.

 

Hyphenating compound modifiers

Hyphenating is especially important when using compound modifiers (= a compound word (= a word made up of two or more words joined) that modifies a noun):

e.g., She was wearing a light-blue shawl 

e.g., She was wearing a light blue shawl. 

Without the hyphen (2nd example), the reader might think that the shawl weighed less than normal and not that its color was light blue!

So, hyphenation is especially important when using a compound word to modify a noun.

 

Hyphenating prefixes

A prefix is something added before the root of a word. For example, on ‘unrelated’, ‘un’ is the prefix, and ‘related’ is the word. You can use the hyphen to avoid confusion with prefixes:

e.g., He managed to recover his cushion 

e.g., He managed to re-cover his cushion.

Hyphenating the prefix changes the meaning of the sentence. The first example suggests that someone has managed to recover his missing cushion, while the second example clarifies that he has managed to get a new cover on his cushion!

 

You should always hyphenate prefixes when either a capital letter or number follows:

e.g., pre-Napoleonic era. 

e.g., post-1980s popular music.

 

You should also hyphenate if the prefix is added to a word that already contains a hyphen.

e.g., Their post-globe-trotting (1) days 

((1) trotting = racing for trotting horses pulling a two-wheeled vehicle (a sulky) and driver)

 

If the hyphens are added to a compound word that contains white space, then the existing white space should also be replaced with a hyphen:

e.g., Many students joined the anti-cold-war movement.

 

When to hyphenate ‘years old’?

This is a common mistake.

We use hyphens for ages expressed as adjectives before a noun or as substitutes for a noun, while we do NOT use hyphens when simply stating the age of something.

Example (1)

Jim is 13.

Jim is 13 years old.

Jim is a 13-year-old (not '13-years-old')

Jim is a 13-year-old boy (not 'a 13-years-old boy')

 

Example (2)

The 17-year-old girl won the beauty competition.

In this sentence, the 17-year-old acts as an adjective describing the girl.

But we say:

The girl who won the beauty competition is 17 years old.

In this sentence, we are stating the girl’s age, so hyphenation is not necessary.

 

Example (3)

That is a 70-year-old bottle of red wine.

Here 70-year-old is acting as an adjective and describing the bottle.

But we say:

That bottle of red wine is 70 years old.

Here we are stating the age of the red wine, so hyphenation is not needed.

 

Example (4)

This is a birthday shower for 7-year-olds.

Here, 7-year-olds is acting as a substitute for a noun, so it is hyphenated.

But we say: The children at this birthday shower are all 7 years old.

Here, we are stating the age of the children at the party.

 

Example (5)

‘I am 35 years old’ (correct).

I am 35-years-old (wrong).

I am 35 year old (wrong).

 

I am a 35-year-old man (correct).

I am a 35-years-old man (wrong).

I am a 35 year old man (wrong).

I am a 35 years old man (wrong).

 

If a noun comes after 'years old,' it can be hyphenated. 

An example is:

That is a 40-year-old building.

Here, the noun building comes after year old, so we hyphenate the sentence by rearranging it.

Otherwise, we say: That building is 40 years old.

 

We do NOT spell out the age.

An example is:

Ηe is 16 years old (correct).

Ηe is sixteen years old (wrong).

 

Similarly, for children under 10 years old, we say:

e.g., My child became 2 years old.

e.g., She is a 2-year-old child.

 

A suspended hyphen is used when two or more hyphenated phrases end the same way. Then, we can use the hyphen after the first word or phrase and suspend the rest of the phrase until the second one.  

e.g., ‘I had lunch with my mother- and sister-in-law.’

e.g., The tutorial class has both 9- and 10-year-olds as students.

e.g., This nightclub is full of 20- and 21-year-olds.

 Reference – Links

(Retrieved: July 18, 2018):

https://grammarpartyblog.com/2013/04/26/years-old-hyphen-or-no-hyphen/

https://writingexplained.org/years-old-hyphenate

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/year-old-hyphen/

https://www.quora.com/Which-one-is-correct-percentE2percent80percent9818-year-oldpercentE2percent80percent99-or-percentE2percent80percent9818-years-oldpercentE2percent80percent99

https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/166501/24-years-old-or-24-year-old

http://grammarist.com/style/ages-hyphenation/

http://www.getitwriteonline.com/archive/040201hyphadj.htm

https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/88205/40-50-years-old-vs-40-50-year-olds-when-referring-to-a-group

 

Using the Dash – The 2 types of dash

The dash purpose is to separate a sentence where there is an interruption that disrupts the flow.

The dash differs from the hyphen in its length: the dash (–) is longer than the Hyphen (-):

e.g., Oprah Winfrey does not wish to become a U.S. presidential candidate – or so she says!

e.g., Many athletes desire fame and money – some even achieve it – but it is easier said than done.

 

The two types of dash

There are two types of dash that are used slightly differently:

i) The ‘en-dash’ (–) is the shorter dash, so-called, as it is the same length as the letter ‘n’.

ii) The ‘em-dash’ (—) is the longer dash, this time the same length as the letter ‘m’.

The ‘en-dash’ is used more often than the ‘em-dash.’

 

Below you can see the comparison between the length of the letter ‘m’ and ‘n’ and the length of an ‘em-dash’ and an ‘en-dash’, respectively. A slight discrepancy is observed!

Anemdash (letter ‘m’ – compared below with the em-dash length)

Ane—dash (em-dash that I copied from the web)

Ane–dash (em-dash from my keyboard)

Anendash (letter ‘n’ – compared below with the em-dash length)

Ane-dash (en-dash that I copied from the web)

Ane-dash (en-dash from my keyboard – I could not find it, so I used a hyphen!)

 

Spacing between the en-dash and em-dash

Space should be placed on either side when using the en-dash (–). When using the longer em-dash (—), NO spaces should be used:

e.g., (en-dash) ‘I really want that new iPhone – and I will do what I can to buy it.’

e.g., (em-dash) ‘I really want that new iPhone—and I will do what I can to buy it.’

 

Using a dash at the end of a line

If a dash appears between the end of one line and the start of another, then make sure the dash appears at the end of the line and not at the start of the next. This will make the punctuation clearer.

e.g., I really want that new iPhone –

and I will do what I can to get it.

Reference (Retrieved: February 20, 2018):

https://www.englishrules.com/writing/2005/comma-with-also/

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/punctuation/comma

https://www.aims.edu/student/online-writing-lab/grammar/comma-rules

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicolon

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/punctuation/semicolon

http://www.dashhyphen.com/hyphen/

http://www.dashhyphen.com/using-the-dash/

http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_06.htm

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/owlprint/607/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley

https://data.grammarbook.com/blog/commas/how-to-punctuate-between-sentences-using-commas-semicolons-and-colons/

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/commas.htm

https://www.grammarbook.com/punctuation/commas.asp

https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/Semicolons.html

http://theoatmeal.com/comics/semicolon

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/semicolon/

http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-colons-and-semicolons-in-sentences.html

https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/semi-colons-colons-and-dashes/

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/hyphen/

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/punctuation/hyphen

http://www.dashhyphen.com/

https://www.grammarbook.com/punctuation/hyphens.asp

https://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/hyphens-and-dashes/

Reference (Retrieved: April 21, 2018):

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/commas.htm

http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_06.htm

http://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/commas_before_conjunctions.htm

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/coordinating-conjunctions/

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma-between-correlative-conjunction-sets/

http://www.talkenglish.com/grammar/conjunctive-adverbs.aspx

                     

The proper use of the apostrophe (’)

(My comment: Many people, even native speakers, make trivial mistakes!)

The apostrophe (pronounced əˈpɒs.trə.fi) at a glance:

My simple ‘guidelines’ are using the apostrophe (’) for people (persons) and the words yesterday’s, today’s, and tomorrow’s. 

 

We also use it for objects.

e.g., Environmentally friendly sheep’s wool is stapled into the lateral groove for insulation.

e.g., The car’s door.

For objects, we may also use ‘of’ instead of the apostrophe, e.g., We may say ‘the door of the car’ instead of ‘The car’s door.’

 

On names that end with ‘s’ but are NOT spoken with an extra ‘s,’ the apostrophe will come WITHOUT ‘s’ at the end. 

e.g., James’ room.

e.g., Yaddo is an artists’ community in Saratoga Springs, NYC.

However, in words ending with ‘s,’ the apostrophe may go with ‘s’ at the end when we would naturally pronounce an extra ‘s’ if we said the word aloud.

e.g., The canvas’s image.

e.g., Congress's new complexion became boldly apparent last summer.

 

Rules for using apostrophes

Apostrophes showing possession

We use an apostrophe to show that a thing or person belongs or relates to someone or something.

e.g., Paul’s party.

e.g., Yesterday’s weather.

 

Singular nouns and most personal names

With a singular noun or most personal names, we add an apostrophe plus ‘s’:

e.g., ‘We met at Paul’s party.’

e.g., Yesterday’s weather was sunny.

e.g., The dog’s tail wagged.

 

Personal names that end in –s

With personal names that end in ‘-s’, we add an apostrophe plus ‘s’ when we would naturally pronounce an extra ‘s’ if we said the word out loud. 

e.g., Bleak House is, for many readers, Dickens’s greatest novel.

e.g., He joined Charles’s army in 1630.

e.g., Thomas’s mother was ill.

This rule has some exceptions, especially in the names of places or organizations, e.g., St Thomas’ Hospital.

Personal names that end in -s but are NOT spoken with an extra ‘s’

With personal names that end in ‘-s’ but are NOT spoken with an extra ‘s,’ we just add an apostrophe after the ‘-s.’

e.g., The court dismissed James’ appeal.

e.g., Connors’ first performance was in 1985.

 

Plural nouns that end in –s

With a plural noun ending in -s, we add an apostrophe after the ‘s.’

e.g., The work is due to start in three weeks’ time.

e.g., The old house was converted into a boys’ school.

e.g., ‘I had to clean out the horses’ stables.’

 

Plural nouns that do NOT end in -s

With a plural noun that does NOT end in –s, we add an apostrophe plus ‘s.’

e.g., He employs 13 people at his women’s clothing store.

e.g., The children’s mother visited me.

 

The only cases in which we do NOT need an apostrophe to show belonging is the group of possessive pronouns: his, hers, ours, yours, theirs (meaning ‘belonging to him, her, us, you, or them’) and also with the possessive determiners:  his, hers, its, our, your, their (meaning 'belonging to or associated with him, her, it, us, you, or them').

 

Apostrophes showing omission

An apostrophe can show that letters or numbers have been omitted.

e.g., I’m (= I am).

e.g., He’ll (= he will).

e.g., She’d (= she had, or she would).

e.g., it’s (= it is) hot/ cold.

e.g., Pick ’n’ mix (= pick and mix).

e.g., didn’t (= did not).

 

It may also show that numbers have been omitted, especially in dates, e.g. The Berlin Wall came down in the autumn of ’89 (=1989).

 

It’s or its?

These are the rules:

Its (without an apostrophe) means ‘belonging to it.’

e.g., Each case is judged on its own merits.

e.g., The puppy wagged its tail.

It’s (with an apostrophe) means ‘it is’ or ‘it has.’

e.g., It’s been a tiring day.

e.g., It’s a comfortable vehicle.

e.g., It’s hot outside.

 

Apostrophes and plural forms

The general rule is that we should NOT use an apostrophe to form the plurals of nouns, abbreviations, or dates made up of numbers: we just add -s (or -es, if the noun in question forms its plural with -es).

e.g., euro – euros (e.g., The cost of this smartphone is 200 euros)

e.g., apple – apples (e.g., I bought a bag of organic apples)

e.g., MP (= a Member of Parliament) – MPs (e.g., The MPs were divided on Brexit)

e.g., pizza – pizzas (e.g., Italian pizzas are thin)

e.g., 1980 – 1980s (e.g., Trends in music were different in the 1980s).

 

Cases in which it is acceptable to use an apostrophe to form a plural, purely for the sake of clarity:

a) We can use an apostrophe to show the plurals of single letters.

e.g., Find all the p’s in appeal.

e.g., I have dotted the I’s and crossed the t’s.

 

b) We can use an apostrophe to show the plurals of single numbers.

e.g., Find all the number 7’s.

It should be noted that an apostrophe should NOT be used to form the plural of ordinary nouns, names, abbreviations, or numerical dates.

 

When do we use an apostrophe in Years?

If we are saying that someone is in his or her 20s or 30s, we do NOT need to use an apostrophe.

An example is:

That fraternity is for students in their 20s (correct).

That fraternity is for students in their 20’s (wrong).

Similarly, for calendar years, we say:

I was born in the 1990s (correct).

I was born in the 1990’s (wrong - a common mistake).

Reference – Links (Retrieved: February 16, 2017):

http://www.grammarbook.com/punctuation/apostro.asp

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/punctuation/apostrophe

https://www.scribendi.com/advice/using_apostrophes.en.html

Reference – Links (Retrieved: December 16, 2017):

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/punctuation/apostrophe

 

Articles

When do we use the definite article ‘The’

(My comment: Many people, even native speakers, may not use the proper article when it is needed or may use it when it is unnecessary!)

 

When we USE the article ‘The’

Before nouns, when we speak specifically, NOT generally.

e.g., The curtains in my room are yellow (referred to as my curtains).

e.g., Where is the cat? (referred to my cat).

 

With something unique.

e.g., The stars; the sky; the North Pole; the sun; the earth; the moon, etc.

 

With geographical terms such as names of Oceans, seas, rivers, mountains, deserts, island groups, and countries (the countries as plural). e.g., the Pacific Ocean; the Amazon River; the Black Sea; the Rocky Mountains; the Sahara Desert; the Canary Islands; the UK; the USA; the Philippines; the Netherlands, etc.

 

With names of hotels, theaters, cinemas, ships, newspapers, buildings, and organisms.

e.g., the Hilton hotel, the Royal Theater, the Palace (cinema name), the Queen Mary the 2^nd (cruise ship), the Times (newspaper), the Empire State (building), the UN (organization), the EU (European Union), etc.

 

With the title of prominent people when their name is NOT referred.

e.g., The Queen; the Prime Minister; the President of the USA; the Pope.

 

With superlatives of adjectives or adverbs.

e.g., the coldest year, the most exciting journey, the most dangerous, etc.

 

With numerical and also with ‘only’ and ‘last’ when we use them with nouns.

e.g., The first time; the second bike; the last time; the last thing; the only favor.

 

With dates and with ‘morning,' ‘afternoon,' ‘evening,’

e.g., the 3^rd of March, December the 25^th, in the morning/ afternoon/ evening.

 

With musical instruments.

e.g., The piano.

 

With the name of people of a specific nation and also with families.

e.g., the Americans; the British/ Britons; the Daltons (family)

 

Note: For specific planets, we also use ‘the.’

e.g., The planet Earth/ Venus (pronounced ˈviː.nəs)(^^^).

 e.g., The planet Mars is an uninhabitable place (i.e., unsuitable for living in).

 

But we do NOT use ‘the’ when we generally refer to planets.

e.g., Might there be intelligent life on other planets?  ((^^) for this example)

 

When we do NOT use the article ‘The’

In front of plural countable nouns when we are GENERALLY speaking, not specifically.

e.g., Snakes are dangerous (not 'the snakes').

e.g., Horses run fast (not 'the horses').

 

With ABSTRACT nouns when we are GENERALLY speaking.

e.g., ‘Life is a gift from God.

e.g., ‘People fight for independence.

 

However, we say, ‘He was amazed by the life in the village' (referring to life in the specific village)

 

With possessive adjectives.

e.g., ‘Where is my shirt?’

e.g., ‘Is it Martha’s car?’

 

After the main names of people, cities, roads, lakes, countries, continents, islands, and mountains.

e.g., Nick is a mechanic.

e.g., Via Veneto is in Rome

e.g., Lake Geneva is in Switzerland.

e.g., Capri is an island in Italy.

e.g., Mountain Blanc is in Europe.

 

With titles of prominent people when it is followed by their NAME.

e.g., Queen Elizabeth the II [here we use 'the II (second)' as numerical, but we don’t say 'The Queen Elizabeth']

e.g., Prince Charles

e.g., Lady Diana

e.g., President Donald Trump (but we say ‘The president of the US)

 

With the name of languages WITHOUT using the word ‘language.’

e.g., Chinese is a difficult language

e.g., English is spoken worldwide (as a language)

But we say, ‘The English language needs a lot of study.’

 

Before ‘next’ or ‘last’ for the present time.

 

With the words ‘father’ and ‘mother’ when we refer to our own parents. e.g., ‘Where is mother?’ (my mother)

 

With meal names when we generally speak and also after the name of colors and games.

e.g., ‘I like eating chicken and chips for lunch.’

(but we say, ‘The breakfast I had at the hotel was delicious’ (referring to the specific breakfast).

e.g., The woman in red (not ‘the red’) is my wife.

e.g., ‘I like playing soccer/ tennis.’

 

With the words ‘home,’ ‘work,’ ‘school,’ ‘church,’ ‘bed,’ ‘hospital,’ and ‘prison’ when we use them for their original meaning.

e.g., We go to school (as students)

e.g., We go to church (to pray to God)

e.g., We go to prison (as prisoners)

e.g., We go to hospitals (as patients to be ‘fixed up’!).

 

But when we are specific, we use ‘the.’

e.g., ‘Don’t take photos in the church' (the specific church)

e.g., Marry is visiting her brother in the hospital' (the specific hospital)

e.g., ‘My shoes are under the bed.'

 

We do not use ‘the’ with the word ‘most’ when it is followed by a noun and has the meaning of a larger number or amount.

e.g., Most pollution comes from cars.

With the word ‘hospital,’ there is a difference between the UK and US English e.g., My father is in hospital (UK English)// My father is in the hospital (US English). 

Reference

Bibliography

Humphries P., Yu S., Nakazawa L., Goni M., Campsall H., LET’S IELTS, 10 Complete Practice Tests, Academic Module, Super Course System, Cyprus, 2013

Tsoukala – Smyrni Lela, The Wonderful World of English Grammar (1) & (2)

Vince M., Sunderland P., Advanced Language Practice with key, English Grammar and Vocabulary, Macmillan Education, UK, 2003.

Cambridge Advanced Learning Dictionary, paperback with CD-ROM, 4th edition, edited by Colin McIntosh, Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Links (Retrieved February 16, 2017):

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/determiners-and-quantifiers/definite-article

http://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/definite-article/

http://www.englishteachermelanie.com/grammar-when-not-to-use-the-definite-article/

http://www.englishteachermelanie.com/grammar-when-not-to-use-the-definite-article/

https://www.grammarly.com/answers/questions/48-is-there-a-simple-rule-for-the-article/

http://www.englishpage.com/articles/a-an-vs-the.htm

http://www.davidappleyard.com/english/articles.htm

        

When we use the articles ‘a’ & ‘an’

The article ‘a’ is used before singular, countable nouns that begin with consonant sounds.

e.g., She is a teacher.

e.g., ‘I own a car.’

e.g., ‘I saw a lion at the zoo.’

 

The article ‘an’ is used before singular, countable nouns which begin with vowel sounds.

e.g., She is an actor.

e.g., ‘I didn't get an invitation to the wedding.’

e.g., ‘I saw an elephant at the zoo.’

 

A (an) means "one" or "a single," so we CANNOT use it with plural nouns. e.g., 'I saw bears (not ‘a bears’) in the National Park,'

 

If there is an adjective or an adverb-adjective combination before the noun, then a(an) should agree with the first sound in the adjective or the adverb-adjective combination.

e.g., He is an excellent driver.

e.g., ‘I saw a beautiful tiger at the zoo.’

 

We use ‘a’ before words such as ‘European’ or ‘university,’ which sound like they start with a consonant even if the first letter is a vowel.

e.g., It is a European country.

e.g., Near my house, there is a university.

 

We also use ‘a’ before letters and numbers which sound like they begin with a consonant, such as "u," "j," "1," or "9".

 

We should keep in mind that it is the sound, not the spelling, which is important.

e.g., That number is a ‘1’ (pronounced ‘wʌn’). Here, ‘1’ is spelled o-n-e; however, it is pronounced ‘wʌn ’ as if it started with a ‘w.’

e.g., ‘I have a Euro (money) in my pocket’ (here, ‘Euro’ sounds like ‘yu-ro’).

 

We use ‘an’ before words such as ‘hour,’ which sound like they start with a vowel even if the first letter is a consonant.

 

We also use ‘an’ before letters and numbers which sound like they begin with a vowel, such as ‘f’ or ‘8’.

 

We should keep in mind that it is the sound, not the spelling, which is important.

e.g., ‘I only have an hour for lunch (hour is pronounced 'aʊə’).

e.g., Does his name begin with an ‘F’? (F is pronounced ‘ef’ as if it started with an ‘e’).

 

Note: Some words, such as ‘herb’ or ‘hospital’, are more complicated because they are pronounced differently in different English accents. In most American accents, the "h" in "herb" is silent, so in North American  English, they usually say, "an herb." In UK English, often the "h" in "herb" is pronounced, so many British say "a herb." In some British accents, the "h" in ''hospital'' is silent, so some British will say "an hospital" instead of "a hospital."

 

We DO NOT use a(an) with uncountable nouns such as information, air, advice, salt, and fun.

e.g., She gives good (not ‘a good’) advice.

 

For acronyms, the rules follow the acronym, NOT the word in full.

For example, we say, ‘I saw a UFO’ (here, ‘u’ sounds like ‘juː’). It is wrong to say ‘an UFO’, supposing that ‘an’ goes with the ‘u’ for the word in full ‘unidentified flying object, as some incorrectly write.

Similarly, we say, for example, ''the patient took an NSAID'' (here, ‘N’ sounds like ‘en’) (NSAID = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (medication)). 

 

The difference between ‘a(n)’ and ‘the’ 

We use ‘a/an’ when we do NOT need to say which thing we are talking about.

We use ‘the’ to talk about a specific thing

e.g., ‘I caught a train to Manchester’ (it does not matter which train).

e.g., The train was late (that particular train was late)

 

We often use ‘a’ when we mention something for the 1^st time and then change to ‘the’ when it is clear which thing we are talking about.

e.g., She was talking to a guy. The guy was laughing. She gave him a gift. The gift was expensive.

 

We also use ‘the’ when it is obvious which thing we are talking about or when there is only one of something.

e.g., ‘Could you please shut the door?’

e.g., ‘I cleaned the house this morning.’

e.g., My brother traveled around the world.

e.g., The sun is hot today.

 

We do NOT use ‘a/an’ before the names of meals.

e.g., We had lunch (not ‘a lunch’) at noon.

 

We do not use ‘a/an’ before words like school, prison, or college when we are talking about them in general.

e.g., ‘I wish to go to college’ (not ‘a college,' as we do not refer to a specific college).

e.g., He spent three years in prison (not ‘a prison,’ as we do not refer to a specific prison).

 

With the word ‘hospital,’ there is a difference between the UK and US English e.g., My father is in hospital (UK English)// My father is in the hospital (US English). It should be noted that in some British accents, the "h" in ''hospital'' is silent, so some British will say "an hospital" instead of "a hospital."

 

We use ‘the’ before the names of shops or places where we go for services when they are the ones we usually go to

e.g., 'I need to go to the supermarket to buy supplies for the weekend.'

e.g., My sister went to the doctor’s office for her stomachache (1) 

((1) ache = (pronounced eɪk) a continuous pain that is unpleasant but not very strong (*))

Reference – Links (Retrieved: June 21, 2017):

https://dictionaryblog.cambridge.org/2015/08/19/a-an-and-the-how-to-use-articles-in-english/

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/grammar/british-grammar/determiners/a-an-and-the

http://www.englishpage.com/articles/a-vs-an.htm

https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/152/when-should-i-use-a-vs-an

https://dictionaryblog.cambridge.org/2015/08/19/a-an-and-the-how-to-use-articles-in-english/

http://www.grammar.com/a-vs-an-when-to-use/

http://www.ef.edu/english-resources/english-grammar/indefinite-articles/

http://www.wikihow.com/Use-percent22Apercent22-and-percent22Anpercent22-Correctly