TIPS for English (k): d) Grammar ii)

Grammar TIPS (ii)

 

Abstract, Concrete, Collective, and Compound Nouns

Concrete Nouns

Concrete nouns name tangible (= perceptible by touch) things; things that we can sense, such as by seeing or touching them, e.g., ‘Cat’ is a concrete noun since a cat is something we can see, hear, and touch. Other concrete nouns include people (e.g. worker, father), places (e.g. Earth, China, mountain), and objects (e.g. television, orange, water). The term ‘concrete noun’ applies to things we can touch and anything we can sense (like ‘music,’ which we can hear).

 

Abstract nouns

Abstract nouns are nouns that name concepts or other intangible things (i.e. things that we cannot touch, taste, see, hear, or smell), like ‘Monday,’ ‘love,’ and ‘approval.’

 

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns are a subcategory of concrete nouns that name groups or collections of things.

e.g., the word ‘team’ is a collective noun for two or more people working together or a group of players forming one side in a competitive game or sport.

Note: We should consider the ‘verbal agreement.’

In British English, you can use either singular or plural verbs after a collective noun, so either of the following would be correct:

(Note: team is a countable noun that goes with a singular or plural verb)

(+ singular verb): The team is engaged in cancer research

(+ plural: The team are engaged in cancer research.

However, you use the singular after a collective noun in North American English.

e.g., The team is engaged in cancer research.

Other examples

His team is trying to get on a winning track. (US)

His team are playing the best soccer this term. (UK)

I'm delighted with the way the team is working. (Australia)

The team is feeling great. (Canada)

The Irish rugby team are formidable. (Ireland)

While singular (is) and plural (are) are used with the collective noun team in all these varieties, plural verbs are more common in British English than in other varieties. The only context where the plural is consistently used in North American English is in phrases such as "he and his team are" or "the city and the team are," which are compound subjects and so typically plural. The same occurs for similar words, such as family. North American English users sometimes choose plural verbs with singular collective nouns if there is discord among the group, i.e., if the group is not behaving as a collective. For example 

"The family are fighting over the grandmother's legacy."

"The rest of the family are arriving soon."

British English more closely tends to prefer plural verbs after singular collective nouns, which denote a group of people. However, in North American English, the singular verb agrees with the singular noun. 

Other singular nouns that behave in this way include:

company (and names of companies)

audience

staff

government, council, board, committee

band (and names of bands or other musical groups)

population

public

couple

crew

electorate

Compound Nouns

Compound nouns are made up of two or more words but name one thing, e.g., ‘paper’ and ‘work’ together ('paperwork') mean routine work involving written documents such as forms, records, or letters.

e.g., ‘I need to catch up on some paperwork.’

Compound nouns can be open (i.e., 2 words with space in between), hyphenated (i.e., two words connected by a hyphen), or closed (i.e., 2 words combined into one):

Open compound nouns:  e.g. coffee house, police officer

Hyphenated compound nouns: e.g. mother-in-law, dry-cleaning

Closed compound nouns: e.g. football, hairdresser

Since there are no universal rules, it is not always easy to know whether a compound noun should be open, closed, or hyphenated.

 

Relative pronouns

The relative pronouns are:

a) Subject: who, which, that.

b)  Object: who(m), which, that.

c) Possessive: whose, whose, -.

We use ‘who’ and ‘whom’ for people.

We use ‘which’ for things.

We use ‘that’ for people or things.

 

We use relative pronouns:

A) After a noun, to make it clear which person or thing we are talking about:

e.g., The house that my parents live in is in East London.

e.g., Alexander Fleming is the scientist who discovered penicillin.

e.g., A burglar who attempted to rob a jewelry shop.

B) To tell us more about a person or thing:

e.g., My father, who was born in Sydney, has always been a great man.

e.g. Mr. Smith, who is 67, has just retired.

e.g., ‘I had chicken and chips, which is a delicious meal.’

 

We do NOT use ‘that’ as a subject in this kind of relative clause.

 

We use ‘whose’ as the possessive form of ‘who.’

e.g., This is Peter, whose sister went to college with me.

 

We sometimes use ‘whom’ as the object of a verb or preposition.

e.g., ‘This is Jim, whom I met at a party last summer.’

e.g., This is John’s brother, with whom I went to university.

However, in contemporary English, we normally use ‘who.’

e.g., ‘This is Jim, who I met at the party last summer.’

e.g., ‘This is John’s brother, who I went to university with.’

 

When ‘whom’ or ‘which’ have a preposition, then the preposition can come:

a) at the beginning of the clause.

e.g., ‘I had an uncle in the UK, from who(m) I inherited an apartment in London.’

e.g., ‘I bought a lawnmower, with which I mowed the lawn.’

or 

b) may go at the end of the clause.

e.g., ‘I had an uncle in the UK who(m) I inherited an apartment in London from.’

e.g., ‘I bought a lawnmower, which I mowed the lawn with.’

We can use ‘that’ at the beginning of the clause:

e.g., ‘I had an uncle in the UK that I inherited an apartment in London from.’

e.g., ‘I bought a lawnmower that I mowed the lawn with.’

 

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives describe a noun or pronoun (^^) and usually go BEFORE a noun. 

e.g., A boring man.

e.g. A dramatic change.

 

Adverbs describe or give more information about a verb, adjective, adverb, or phrase. They usually end with -ly and usually FOLLOW a verb.

e.g., She smiled (verb) cheerfully (adverb).

e.g., The house was (verb) spotlessly (adverb) clean (^^).

 

Adjectives/ Adverbs: Noticeable/ noticeably; marked (e.g., A marked fall of $2,000)/ markedly; dramatic/ dramatically; steep/ steeply; sharp/ sharply; rapid/ rapidly; significant/ significantly; steady/ steadily; gradual/ gradually; slow/ slowly; slight/ slightly; relative/ relatively; considerable/ considerably; sudden/ suddenly; favorable/  favorably; apparent/ apparently; notable/ notably; mere/ merely; obvious/ obviously; gentle/ gently; short/ shortly; quick/ quickly; exact/ exactly; reasonable/ reasonably; vast/ vastly; immense/ immensely (= to a great extent, extremely; e.g., ‘He's an immensely talented young athlete’); outstanding/ outstandingly; even/ evenly.

Other examples: a little; shortly after; consistent; proportionate; explicit (with a clear meaning, easy to understand e.g., ‘I have him explicit directions on how to get here’ (^^^)// e.g., ‘The speaker's intentions were not made explicit’); accordingly (adverb – ‘according to’ is a preposition); fast (adjective or adverb – ‘fastly’ does not exist as an adjective!).

Examples:  unemployment increased sharply; a small rise; a steady upward trend; increased dramatically; a steep drop; rose steadily; dropped significantly; remained reasonably constant (e.g., ‘Sales remained reasonably constant at this level’); gentle decrease; gradual increase; a significant downward trend.

 

Root word/ Noun/ Verb/Adjective and Adverb of the same word 

 Examples:

Politics – politician – politicize – political – politically

Rare – rarity – rarify – rare – rarely

Civil – civility – civilize – civil – civilly

Energy – energy – energize – energetic – energetically

Act – activity – act – active – actively

Quote – quotation – quote – quotable - ----

Agree – agreement – agree – agreeable – agreeably

Beauty – beauty – beautify – beautiful – beautifully

Imagine – imagination – imagine – imaginative – imaginatively

Other examples of noun – adjectives – adverbs: meaningful (adjective) – meaningfully (adverb); happy (it is an adjective) – happily (adverb); uniform/ uniformity (noun) – uniform (as an adjective e.g., The walls and the furniture are a uniform white (^^^)) – uniformly (adverb); library (noun) – librarian (noun); solid (noun or adjective) – solidify (verb).

 

Relative Adverbs

Relative adverbs (where, when, and why), like relative pronouns, introduce relative clauses (adjective clauses) that modify a noun or a noun phrase.

However, relative pronouns (such as that, which, or who) relate information to a person or a thing, but relative adverbs are used when the information relates to a place, time, or the reason an action took place.

 

Using relative adverbs (where, when, and why)

Place

We use the relative adverb ‘where’ to introduce information about a place that can be any location: a house, city, country, geographical region, or even a planet.

e.g., ‘The house where I was born was a small cozy house in London.’

e.g., ‘London, where I want to live, is one of the most interesting cities in the world.’

 

Time

We use the relative adverb ‘when’ to introduce information referring to time. That time can be an actual time of day, a day, a week, a year, or even an era.

e.g., The 1980s were a time when the punk hairstyle was fashionable.

e.g., Yesterday was the day when I went with my girlfriend to the movies.

 

Reason

We use the relative adverb ‘why’ to introduce information referred to as the reason something occurred. In this case, the modified noun is the reason, but it is often omitted to avoid repetitiveness.

e.g., ‘I don’t know why he got frustrated with his performance.’

or

‘I don’t know why he got frustrated with his performance.’

 

Postpositive or postnominal adjectives

A postpositive or postnominal adjective is an attributive adjective that is placed AFTER the noun or pronoun that it modifies. This contrasts with prepositive adjectives, which come BEFORE a noun or pronoun. A common situation in which adjectives appear prepositive in English is when they qualify compound indefinite pronouns (= pronouns that refer to non-specific beings, objects, or places): something, anyone, nobody, somewhere, etc.

Prepositive adjectives:

e.g., We need someone strong. 

e.g., ‘Going anywhere nice?’

e.g., Nothing important happened.’

Another case where we use them is when the adjective itself has a modifier that comes after it; that is when the noun or pronoun is modified by an adjective phrase in which the head adjective is not final.

For example, in phrases such as ‘as bigger than that,’ ‘proud of themselves,’ and ‘anxious to leave,’ if used attributively, would normally have to come after the noun.

e.g., ‘We need a box bigger than that.’ (not ‘a bigger than that box’).

Exceptions include certain established phrases such as ‘easy-to-use’ and variations which can be used as single adjectives before the noun.

Phrases in which the adjective is followed only by ‘enough’ also often appear before the noun.

e.g., Are there enough desserts for everyone? (**)

Certain adjectives are commonly used in postpositive positions.  Similar behavior is displayed by many adjectives with the suffix -able or -ible  

e.g., That was the best room available.

e.g., That was the only decision possible.

e.g., That was the worst choice imaginable.

Certain adjectives with a sense similar to those in the mentioned categories are also found postpositively.

e.g., ...all the people present

e.g., ...the first payment due.

Adjectives may change meaning when used postpositively.

For example:

Every visible star is named after a famous astronomer (prepositive)

Every star visible is named after a famous astronomer (postpositive)

 

The prepositive in the first sentence may also have an individual-level meaning, referring to an inherent property of the object: the stars that are visible in general.

The postpositive in the second sentence is expected to refer to the stars that are visible here and now; that is. So, it expresses a stage-level predicate.

Another example is the adjective ‘responsible’:

e.g., ‘I'm here to find the responsible people.’ (prepositive)

e.g., ‘I'm here to find the people responsible.’ (postpositive)

Used prepositive, as in the first sentence, generally means something like ‘trustworthy’ or ‘reliable.’

But when used postpositively, as in the second sentence, it probably means ‘at fault’ or ‘guilty’ of some misdeed (= a wicked or illegal act) known from the context.

Reference

Bibliography:

1) Cambridge English Official IELTS 11 Academic, Cambridge University Press, UK, 2016. www.cambridge.org/elt

2) Milton J., Bell H., Neville P., IELTS Practice Test 1 with Answers (& CD), Express Publishing, Liberty House, UK, 2002, 5th impression 2016. www.expresspublishing.co.uk

3) Milton J., Bell H., Neville P., IELTS Practice Test 2 with Answers (& CD), Express Publishing, Liberty House, UK, 2003, 5th impression 2016. www.expresspublishing.co.uk

4) IELTS Premier by British Council, Student Handbook, 2016.

5) Obee B., Spratt M., Mission IELTS (Coursebook & CD), Express Publishing, Liberty House, UK, 2010. www.expresspublishing.co.uk

6) Obee B., Spratt M., Mission IELTS Teachers book, Express Publishing, Liberty House, UK, 2010, 3rd impression in 2015. www.expresspublishing.co.uk

7) Obee B., Spratt M., Mission IELTS Workbook (1), Academic & General Training (& CD), Express Publishing, Liberty House, UK, 2011. www.expresspublishing.co.uk

8) Dimond – Bayir S., Improve your Skills, Writing for IELTS 6.0 – 7.5 with Answer Key, Macmillan Education, UK, 2014

9) Tsoukala – Smyrni Lela, The Wonderful World of English Grammar (1) & (2)

10) Vince M., Sunderland P., Advanced Language Practice with key, English Grammar and Vocabulary, Macmillan Education, UK, 2003.

11) Grivas C.N., Guided Composition, and Letter Writing, (5). Proficiency

12) De Castle L., Gilmore H., SOS, A step–by–step approach to composition writing for the Cambridge First Certificate, 2nd edition, Hillside Press.

13) Speak your Mind in Writing (Proficiency), C2, Teacher’s Super Course System.

14) British Council, Official IELTS Practice Materials with CD, March 2009

15) British Council, Official IELTS Practice Materials with CD, Vol. (2), 2010

16) Jakeman V., McDowell C., New Insights into IELTS, Workbook with Answers, Cambridge English, Cambridge University Press, 1st published 2008, reprinted 2016

17) Jakeman V., McDowell C., New Insights into IELTS, Student’s Book with Answers, Cambridge English, Cambridge University Press, 3rd edition, 2008, 17th printing, 2015

18) Cambridge Advanced Learning Dictionary, paperback with CD-ROM, 4th edition, edited by Colin McIntosh, Cambridge University Press, 2013.

19) British Council, Clarity, ROAD TO IELTS, IELTS preparation and practice (Listening, Reading, Writing, Speaking), Academic Module, 2012

20) Humphries P., Yu S., Nakazawa L., Goni M., Campsall H., LET’S IELTS, 10 Complete Practice Tests, Academic Module, Super Course System, Cyprus, 2013

21) Lougheed L, Barron’s IELTS, 4th edition, Barron’s Educational Series Inc., New York, 2016

22) Official IELTS 12 Academic (with Answer Keys), authentic examination papers, Cambridge University Press, UK, 2017

23) Lougheed L, Barron’s IELTS, P. (48) – (49), 4th edition, Barron’s Educational Series Inc., New York, 2016.

24) Jakeman V., McDowell C., New Insights into IELTS, Student’s Book with Answers, Cambridge English, Cambridge University Press, 2016.

Links (Retrieved: February 20, 2018):

https://proofreadmyessay.co.uk/resources/academic-blog/noun-types/

https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Relative-Adverbs.htm

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/relative-pronouns

https://www.englishpractice.com/improve/relative-adverbs-relative-pronouns/

https://www.learningfarm.com/web/practicePassThrough.cfm?TopicID=1690

https://www.englishgrammar.org/difference-conjunctions-relative-pronouns-relative-adverbs/

https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/relative-clauses

https://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/relative-adverbs/

https://english.tutorvista.com/grammar/relative-adverbs.html

http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/relative_adverbs.htm

http://www.grammaring.com/relative-adverbs-where-when-why

http://roble.pntic.mec.es/~mfec0041/bachillerato/archivos/relative_clauses_hotpot/Relative_adverbs_when_where_why.htm

https://prezi.com/vyfk78yfln-g/collective-and-compound-nounssingular-and-plural-nouns/

http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/nouns/compound-noun.html

https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-difference-between-a-collective-noun-and-a-compound-noun

http://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/nouns/collective-nouns/

https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/nouns-concrete-abstract-collective-and-compound

https://www.slideshare.net/MaryjoyElynethDuguran/collective-and-compound-nouns-eng-4

https://quizlet.com/147935895/compound-and-collective-nouns-flash-cards/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpositive_adjective

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun

https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2022/03/23/my-team-is-winning-or-are-they/

                    

Adjectives: Comparative and Superlative form

To make the comparative and the superlative form of adjectives, we first need to know how many syllables are in the adjective.

 

a) Adjectives with one syllable

Usually, if an adjective has only one syllable, we add ‘-er’ to make the comparative form and ‘-est’ to make the superlative form.

e.g., Cold – colder/ coldest

e.g., Clean – cleaner/ cleanest

e.g., Young – younger/ youngest

e.g., Cool – cooler/ coolest

e.g., Small – smaller/ smallest

e.g., Tall – taller/ tallest

 

Spelling changes:

i. If one vowel is followed by one consonant at the end of the adjective, we often double the consonant.

e.g., Wet– wetter / wettest

e.g., Big– bigger / biggest

e.g., Thin– thinner / thinnest

e.g., Hot –hotter / hottest

ii. If the adjective ends in ‘y,’ this often changes to ‘i’.

e.g., Shy – shier/ shiest

e.g., Dry– drier / driest

 

iii. If the adjective ends in ‘e,’ we do not add another ‘e,’ but just ‘-r’/ ‘-st’

e.g., Large – larger / largest

e.g., Nice– nicer/ nicest

 

Even when the adjective has only one syllable, it is still not wrong to use ‘more’ or ‘most,’ e.g., ‘more/ most tall’

 

There are some adjectives where we must use ‘more’ or ‘most,’ even though they only have one syllable. In this case, we can NOT add ‘-er’ for the comparative or ‘-est’ for the superlative

e.g., Fun: more/most fun

e.g., Right: more/ most right

e.g., Wrong: more/most wrong

e.g., Real: more/most real

 

b) Adjectives with two syllables

 

For adjectives with two syllables, we generally use ‘more’ or ‘most’

e.g., Bored – more/ most bored

e.g., Careful – more/ most careful

e.g., Clever – more/ most clever

 

However, some two-syllable adjectives can take ‘-er’ for the comparative or ‘-est’ for the superlative. It is also fine to use ‘more’ for the comparative or ‘most’ for the superlative.

e.g., Narrow – narrower/ narrowest

e.g., Clever – cleverer/ cleverest

e.g., Quiet – quieter/ quietest

e.g., Simple – simpler/ simplest (NOT simplier - simpliest)

 

Adjectives with two syllables that end in 'y' usually can add ‘-er’ for the comparative or ‘-est’ for the superlative (y generally changes to i). It is also fine to use 'more' or 'most'.

e.g., Happy – happier/ happiest

e.g., Dirty – dirtier/ dirtiest

e.g., Ugly– uglier/ ugliest

e.g., Pretty – prettier/ prettiest

 

c)Adjectives with more than two syllables

 

Adjectives with MORE than TWO syllables can ONLY make their comparative by using ‘more’ and their superlative by using ‘most.’

e.g., Expensive – more/ most expensive

e.g., Interesting – more/ most interesting

e.g., Beautiful – more/ most beautiful

e.g., Intelligent – more/ most intelligent

 

d) Irregular adjectives

There are also some irregular adjectives:

Good – better – best

Bad – worse – worst

Far –further – furthest

Little –less – least

Much – more – most

Old (people in a family) – elder – the eldest (e.g., Nick is my eldest brother)

Old (general use) – older – the oldest

Reference (Retrieved: October 17, 2017):

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives/

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/comparatives-and-superlatives/comparison-adjectives-bigger-biggest-more-interesting

http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/rules/comp.htm

http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-lesson-comparatives-superlatives.php

http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/adjectives-comparative-and-superlative.html

http://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/comparative-and-superlative/

http://www.eflnet.com/tutorials/adjcompsup.php

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/adjectives/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives

http://www.grammar.cl/Intermediate/Comparatives_Superlatives.htm

http://ru.talkenglish.com/grammar/comparative-superlative-adjectives.aspx

https://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/adjectiveirregular.html

https://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/grammar/adjektive_steig.htm

https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/irregular-adjectives.htm

           

 

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted. Most nouns in English are countable.

e.g. I have two cats/ dogs.

e.g., Mary has two cars.

e.g., My sister has twenty dollars.

Uncountable are the nouns that are NOT counted in English. Generally, we do NOT use plural forms of these words.

e.g., My father drinks a lot of water.

e.g., My sister gives great advice.

However, some of these words end in ‘s,’ so we should NOT get confused.

e.g., ‘I enjoy politics’ (here, although ‘politics’ ends with ‘s,’ it is an uncountable noun)

 

Categories of Uncountable nouns:

Liquids and Gases

Water

Coffee

Milk

Tea

Air

Oxygen

 

Solid and Granular Substance

Metal (but it may also be countable, e.g. Precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum.// e.g. Lead and tin are malleable metals.// e.g., This new drill works very well on hard metals)

Cheese

Sand

Rice

Leather

Wood (note: as plural, ‘woods’ means a group of trees)

 

Energy Words and Forces

Electricity

Sunshine

Radiation

Heat

Magnetism

Light (as a form of energy. However, it is countable when light means small light bulbs that are countable, e.g., ‘The Xmas tree was covered with hundreds of lights’)

 

Subjects

French

Chemistry

Economics (e.g., London School of Economics.// e.g., Economics is not an exact Science ((^^) for the last example)

Science (it is uncountable, e.g. Advances in medical science (**); but it is countable or uncountable when we refer to a particular subject that is studied using scientific methods, e.g., Life sciences.// e.g., Physical sciences)

Mathematics (Maths in British English; Math in North American English)

 

Grouped Concepts

Fruit (it is a countable or uncountable noun. Examples: e.g., Tropical fruits such as mangoes and papaya.// e.g., ‘Eat plenty of fresh fruit(s) and vegetables’)

Money

Food (e.g., we say ''canned/ dairy food,''  ''health food shop,'' ''healthy food'')

Vocabulary

 

Misc.

Staff (it is a singular noun and goes with a singular or plural verb, e.g., The staff are not very happy about the latest pay increase (^^))

Police (it is a plural noun, e.g. The police are investigating fraud allegations against him.// e.g., Police have launched an initiative to tackle rising crime. (^^)).// e.g., Police were alerted after two men drove away without paying).

Hair (it is a countable or an uncountable noun; e.g., ‘I found a hair in my soup (^^^)./// But when we talk about hair, NOT of our head, it may go with a plural verb, e.g., ‘Cat hairs are/ cat hair is on the couch.’// It may be a plural noun, e.g., ‘He is starting to get a few gray hairs now’ ((^^) for this example))

Family (it is a countable or uncountable noun and goes with a singular or a plural verb; e.g., A new family has/ have moved in next door.// e.g., He is American, but his family (= here it means his relatives in the past) come/ comes from Ireland (^^).

Offspring (not ‘offsprings,’ as it is an uncountable noun)

Broccoli (it is an uncountable noun) (pronounced ˈbrɒk.(ə)l.i)

Spacecraft (it is an uncountable noun; so, spacecrafts is wrong)

 

Information and Abstract Concepts

Information

Advice (‘advise’ is the verb)

Education (singular, uncountable noun)

Democracy (it is an uncountable noun, but it is countable when it refers to a country in which power is held by elected representatives, e.g. Few of Western democracies still have a royal family (^^)) 

Intelligence

Freedom

News (it is an uncountable noun, e.g., The news is good for Mary.// e.g., ‘That is the best news I have heard for a long time’ ((^^) for the last example))

Time

Knowledge

Data (it is an uncountable noun and goes with a singular or plural verb, e.g., Now the data is/are being transferred from magnetic tape to hard disk (**))

Help

Note: We use "much" with singular, uncountable nouns.'' So, ''much advice'' is correct in the sentence ''...the writer expresses his point of view, and much advice is empirical.''  

Countable and Uncountable nouns vs. singular or plural nouns vs. nouns that go with singular or plural verbs

(My comment: often, for many people, there is confusion about whether a noun is countable or uncountable, singular or plural, and if it goes with singular or plural verbs, or both.).

 

Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted. Most nouns in English are countable.

e.g. ‘I have two cats.’

e.g., Mary has two cars.

 

Uncountable nouns are nouns that are NOT counted in English. Generally, we do NOT use plural forms of these words. However, some of these words end in ‘s,’ so we should not get confused.

e.g., ‘I enjoy politics’ (here, although politics ends with ‘s,’ it is uncountable).

About uncountable plurals: sometimes, in English, we use uncountable nouns in a plural form e.g., with liquids and substances. It usually takes on the meaning of ‘cups/glasses of,’ ‘bottles of,’ or ‘types/kinds of.’

e.g., ''We'll have two coffees'' (i.e., 2 cups of coffee).

e.g., ''I bought two waters'' (i.e., 2 bottles/glasses of water) (we also refer to 2 drinks of water)).

e.g., The company produces two leathers (i.e., 2 types/kinds of leather) (we also refer to pieces of leather).

 

Note: There are certain words that have multiple meanings. One meaning can be countable, and the other can be uncountable, such as in the word ‘light.’

e.g., ''I couldn't see anything because there was no light'' (uncountable noun; light here is used as a form of energy).

e.g., ''The Xmas tree was covered with hundreds of lights'' (here as a countable noun; light here means small light bulbs that are countable)

 

Wood is an uncountable noun. But as a plural noun, ‘woods’ means a group of trees.

e.g., Shaded from the sun, the woods were cool and quiet (^^).

 

Fruit is a countable or an uncountable noun.

e.g., Tropical fruits such as mangoes and papaya.

e.g., ‘Eat plenty of fresh fruit(s) and vegetables.’

e.g., Libran foods and plants include many fruits - strawberry, peach, apple, and autumn berries.

 

Economics is an uncountable noun.

e.g., London School of Economics.

e.g., Economics is not an exact Science ((^^) for the last example)

 

Metal is an uncountable noun, but it may also be countable.

e.g. Precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum.

e.g. Lead and tin are malleable metals.

e.g., This new drill works very well on hard metals.

 

Light is an uncountable noun as a form of energy. However, it is countable when light means small light bulbs that are countable.

e.g., ‘The Xmas tree was covered with hundreds of lights’ (light here means small light bulbs that are countable)

 

Science is an uncountable noun, e.g.  Advances in medical science (**)

But it is countable or uncountable when we refer to a particular subject studied using scientific methods.

e.g., Life sciences.

e.g., Physical sciences.

Staff is an uncountable noun, a singular noun that goes with a singular or plural verb.

e.g., The staff are unhappy about the latest pay increase (^^).

e.g., A spokesman for the bank said all its staff are trained to spot fraud, and it was delighted at their vigilance.

e.g., Hospital staff were not to blame.

 

Personnel is an uncountable noun and goes with a singular or plural verb. 

e.g. The UN personnel were molested by protesters (*).

e.g., British service personnel are helping to stabilize the security situation.

e.g., In addition, the number of service personnel is three times that of the passengers.

 

Police is an uncountable, plural noun.

e.g. The police are investigating fraud allegations against him.

e.g., Police have launched an initiative to tackle rising crime. (^^).

e.g., Police were alerted after two men drove away without paying.

 

Hair is a countable or an uncountable noun.

e.g., ‘I found a hair in my soup’ (^^^).

When we talk about hair, NOT of our head, it may go with a plural verb.

e.g., ‘Cat hairs are/ cat hair is on the couch.’

It may be a plural noun.

e.g., ‘He is starting to get a few gray hairs now’ ((^^) for this example)

 

Family is a countable or uncountable noun and goes with a singular or plural verb.

e.g., A new family has/ have moved in next door.

e.g., He is American, but his family (= here it means his relatives in the past) come/ comes from Ireland (^^).

 

Education is a singular, uncountable noun

 

Democracy is an uncountable noun, but it is countable when it refers to a country in which power is held by elected representatives.

 e.g. Few Western democracies still have a royal family (^^).

 

News is an uncountable noun.

e.g., The news is good for Mary.

e.g., ‘That is the best news I have heard for a long time’ ((^^) for the 2^nd example).

 e.g. This news has been well received by some residents who were beginning to lose faith in the council a few weeks ago.

e.g., In the life of a migrant, the big news event is not who came in first in the Bass Hill election.

 

Band is a countable noun and goes with a singular or plural verb.

e.g., A Jazz/ rock band.

e.g., The Beetles were probably the most famous band in the world (^^).

e.g., The world's biggest bands are British.

e.g., Many bands are (or were) Couples.

 

Human as a noun is countable.

e.g., The greatest damage to our planet today is done by humans (**).// e.g., Most species have no natural predators and do not fear humans.

Note: ‘Human’ is also an adjective e.g., The human body.

 

Species is a countable, plural noun.

e.g., Most species have no natural predators and do not fear humans.

e.g., Organisms of a particular species all have the same genes but have different alleles.

 

Population is a countable noun and goes with a singular or a plural verb.

e.g., Throughout the war, there were horrific casualties amongst the civilian populations of both countries (^^).

e.g., A surprising percentage of the population is illiterate (= unable to read or write).

e.g., The global population is expected to increase.

e.g., The economy in countries with younger populations (not ‘younger population’), such as India, is boosted.

For ‘population,’ we use ‘less,’ NOT ‘fewer.’  We write ‘less than … of the population’/ ‘with a population of less than.’ When we compare populations, we write, ‘the population of A is/ was less than that of B.’

 

People is a countable, plural noun.

e.g. Customs (‘customs’ is an uncountable noun) similar to this one is found among many peoples of the world.

e.g., The peoples there remain distinct and unassimilated (1).

e.g., The Bakongo are a blend of peoples who assimilated the Kongo culture and language over time.

e.g., Insecure land tenure (2) is a common problem faced by African pastoralists and indigenous peoples globally.

e.g., The French are known as a food-loving people (**).

(1) Unassimilated = not absorbed or integrated into a wider society or culture.

(2) Tenure = being the legal owner of land, a job, or an official public position or the period of time during which you own it (*)

 

We say ‘fewer people,’ not ‘less,’ as it is a plural noun, e.g., Fewer people showed interest in the concert this year.

 

When we talk in general about plural or an uncountable noun, we should NOT use ''the'' before that noun. 

 

If we put "the" before "people," those people are of a small number, specific and regular parts. Oppositely, generalization will occur by omitting "the."

e.g., ''People (not the people) will think you've gone mad.'' 

e.g., People (not the people) like to be made to feel important (*). 

 

But we may use ''the'' before ''people'': 

 

a)  When you say ''the people,'' you mean a large number of ordinary men and women who do not have positions of power:

e.g., He claims to be the voice of the people.

e.g., The U.S. President has lost the support of the people.

e.g., Lady Diana was the people's Princess

e.g., The president wanted to take his message directly to the people.

 

b) Referring to men and women who are involved in a particular type of work

e.g., ''We'll have to get the people at the city council to look at these plans'' ((*) for the above examples).

Team is a countable noun that goes with a singular or plural verb.

e.g., (+ singular verb): The team is engaged in cancer research.

e.g., (+ plural: The team are engaged in cancer research.

In North American English, they use the singular after a collective noun.

e.g., The team is engaged in cancer research (US English)

 

Customs (1), with the meaning of money paid to the government when you take particular goods from one country to another (*) is a plural noun. With the meaning of the place at a port, airport, or border where travelers' bags are examined for illegal or taxable goods (*), it is an uncountable noun.

As an uncountable noun:

e.g., Customs officials (**).

e.g., ‘It took us ages to get through customs when we returned from Germany’ (**).

As a plural noun:

e.g., German customs say the truck was carrying drugs with a street value of over $1m (**).

e.g., A prominent retailer is legally challenging Customs' decision to include credit card fees in the duty paid on imported goods (**).

e.g., He works for U.S. Customs (**).

 

(1) With the meaning of a way of behaving or a belief that has been established for a long time, custom is a countable or an uncountable noun, 

e.g.,  Traditions and customs.

e.g., 'In my country, it's the custom for women to get married in white.' 

e.g., He is studying the language and customs of the native Indians (**).

 

Aircraft is a countable noun. But its plural form is the same as the singular, i.e., aircraft, not aircrafts.

e.g., Attacks by enemy aircraft (not aircrafts) forced the tanks to retreat from the city.

e.g., The airline is taking steps to ensure safety on its aircraft (not aircrafts) ((*) for the above examples). 

Youth  (noun) (as singular or uncountable) is the period of your life when you are young, or the state of being young, e.g., I was a fairly good baseball player in my youth.// e.g., She looks like a woman who's found the secret to eternal youth (= staying young)./// (countable) (disapproving) a boy or a young man, e.g., Gangs of youths were throwing stones at the police./// (uncountable) (+ singular or plural verb) young people, both male and female, considered as a group, e.g., The youth of today (**). We use a plural verb with the meaning of a collective noun (meaning young people), e.g., Today's youth are our future.  But youth can also mean a boy or a young man, e.g., Four youths have been arrested. 

• For a list of countable and uncountable nouns, See:

·         https://www.engvid.com/english-resource/countable-and-uncountable-nouns/

·         http://ieltsliz.com/uncountable-nouns-word-list/

·         https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/nouns-uncountable-list.htm

 

Reference

Cambridge Advanced Learning Dictionary, paperback with CD-ROM, 4th edition, edited by Colin McIntosh, Cambridge University Press, 2013 (^^) (^^^ for the examples)

Links (Retrieved: June 21, 2017):

http://www.englishpage.com/minitutorials/countable-uncountable-nouns.htm

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/grammar/countable-nouns

http://www.ef.edu/english-resources/english-grammar/countable-and-uncountable-nouns/

http://ieltsliz.com/uncountable-nouns-word-list/

http://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/nouns/countable-uncountable-nouns/

http://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/grammar-vocabulary/grammar-videos/countable-and-uncountable-nouns

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/grammar/british-grammar/about-nouns/nouns-countable-and-uncountable

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/countable-and-uncountable-nouns/

https://www.engvid.com/english-resource/countable-and-uncountable-nouns/

Reference – Links (Retrieved: October 2, 2017):

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/democracy?q=percentE2percent80percentA2percent09democracy

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/science

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/metal

Reference – Links (Retrieved: October 17, 2017):

https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2013/07/the-worlds-biggest-bands-are-british-and-its-biggest-solo-artists-are-american/277472/

https://www.ranker.com/list/bands-that-are-couples/celebrity-lists

 

 

Fewer or less?

Fewer + plural noun

We use fewer if we refer to people or things in the plural, such as houses, newspapers, dogs, students, children, etc.

e.g., People these days are buying fewer newspapers.

e.g., Fewer students are opting to study science-related subjects.

e.g., Fewer than fifty children each year develop the disease.

e.g., The state had fewer banks per capita (= for each person; in relation to people taken individually) than elsewhere.

e.g., They lay fewer eggs in a clutch (= a group of eggs fertilized at the same time, typically laid in a single session and (in birds) incubated together)

e.g., ‘I spent fewer euros/ dollars than usual.’

e.g., ‘I need to write fewer words in my essay and make fewer mistakes!’

 

Less + uncountable or without a plural noun

We use less when referring to something that CANNOT be counted (uncountable) or does NOT have a plural, such as money, air, time, music, rain, etc.

e.g., It is a better job, but they pay you less money.

e.g., People want to spend less time in traffic jams

e.g.,’ When I’m on tour, I listen to less music.’

 

Less is also used with numbers when they are on their own and with expressions of measurement or time

e.g., His weight fell from 20 stones to less than 15 (stones)

e.g., Their marriage lasted less than three years.

e.g., Heath Square is less than four miles from Dublin city center.

Note: Some examples of nouns that are themselves numbers are percent, interest rate, population, volume, distance, price, cost, and number.

 

Examples: ‘less money’ (‘money’ is an uncountable noun); fewer euros/ dollars (countable – plural nouns); fewer children (‘children’ is a plural noun; we do NOT say ‘less children’); little/ less/ much time (‘time’ is an uncountable noun), fewer people (‘people’ is a plural noun; e.g., Fewer people showed interest in the concert this year); fewer (not ‘less’) words/ mistakes (e.g., ‘I need to write fewer words (not ‘less words,’ as ‘word’ is a countable noun) and to have fewer mistakes (not ‘less mistakes,’ as ‘mistake’ is a countable noun) in my essay.’

 

Population

Population is a countable noun and goes with a singular or plural verb.

e.g., Throughout the war, there were horrific casualties amongst the civilian populations of both countries (^^).

e.g., A surprising percentage of the population is illiterate (= unable to read or write).

e.g., The global population is expected to increase.

e.g., The economy in countries with younger populations (not ‘younger population’), such as India, is boosted (my example)

 

For population, we use ‘less.’

We write ‘less than … of the population’/ ‘with a population of less than’ 

e.g., Less than 10 percent of the population will be affected by the virus.

e.g., It is a small village with a total population of less than 500 people.

We write ‘the population of A is/ was less than that of B’ when we compare populations.

e.g., The population of Mongolia is less than that of New York.

e.g., At the same time, the population of India was less than that of China.

 

People

People is a countable noun.

e.g. Customs like this one are found among many peoples of the world.

e.g., The peoples remain distinct and unassimilated (= not absorbed or integrated into a wider society or culture).

e.g., The Bakongo are a blend of peoples who assimilated the Kongo culture and language over time.

e.g., Insecure land tenure (1) is a common problem faced by African pastoralists and indigenous peoples globally. 

e.g., The French are known as a food-loving people (**).

 ((1) tenure = being the legal owner of land, a job, or an official public position, or the period of time during which you own it (*))

So, we say ‘fewer people,’ as it is a plural noun.

e.g., Fewer people showed interest in the concert this year.

 

Reference (Retrieved: October 17, 2017):

https://magoosh.com/gmat/2012/gmat-comparisons-more-vs-greater-and-less-vs-fewer/#sthash.iKVRjMu4.dpuf

https://forum.wordreference.com/threads/smallvilles-population-was-less-than-fewer-than-150-000.3157716/

https://www.englishforums.com/English/FewerThanVsLessThan/xjjvj/post.htm

https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/33885/which-is-more-correct-fewer-than-hundred-people-or-less-than-hundred-people

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/usage/less-or-fewer

http://www.english-test.net/forum/ftopic4355.html

 

        Some & Any

         Some

• Some is used with the plural form of countable nouns and with uncountable nouns, e.g., Some pens (countable noun, plural).// e.g., Some water (uncountable noun).
• Some is also used in positive sentences (affirmative), e.g., ''There is some milk in the fridge'' (milk = uncountable noun).// e.g., ''I did some exercises'' (exercises = plural countable noun)
• Moreover, we use some in offers, e.g., ''Would you like some tea?''  (tea = uncountable noun)
• We also use some in requests, e.g., ''Could you give me some advice, please?'' (advice = uncountable noun)

 

         Any

• Any, similar to some, is used with the plural form of countable nouns and with uncountable nouns, e.g., Any pens (pens = plural countable noun).// e.g., Any water (water = uncountable noun)
• Any is used in questions, e.g., ‘'Is there any milk in the fridge? (milk = uncountable noun)
• Any is also used in negative sentences, e.g., There isn't any milk in the fridge (milk = uncountable noun)

 

        Any/ anything

• Negative + any
• Question + any/ anything

 

        No/ nothing

• Affirmative + no/nothing

         Examples:

• Do you have any photos of your hometown? (question + any/ anything) No, I do not have any photos (negative + any). I have nothing to remind me of my hometown (affirmative + no/nothing)

• Would you like any milk? (question + any/ anything) He has not any milk (negative + any). I would like no milk in my tea (affirmative + no/nothing)
• Has he anything to lose? (question + any/ anything) He hasn’t anything to lose (negative + any). He has nothing to lose (affirmative + no/nothing)

          

        Yet/ already

• The adverbs ''yet'' and ''already'' go with present perfect simple.
• ‘Yet’ goes with question and negative clauses
• e.g., ‘Have you finished yet?’ (question) ‘No, I haven’t finished yet.’ (negative clause)

• ‘Already’ goes with question and affirmative (positive) clauses
• e.g., Have you studied already?’ (question) ‘Yes, I have already studied/ studied already.’ (affirmative) 

• Main TIP: Affirmative + no/nothing

• Reference – Links (Retrieved June 21, 2017):

  https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/vocabulary/some-any

  http://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/grammar/british-grammar/quantifiers/any

  http://speakspeak.com/resources/english-grammar-rules/various-grammar-rules/some-any-differences

  http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/rules/some.htm

  https://www.englishgrammar.org/when-to-use-some-and-any/

  http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-lesson-some-any.php

  http://www.english-at-home.com/grammar/some-and-any/

  http://www.grammar.cl/Notes/Some_Any_A_An.htm

 

         Some vs. Many

• We use SOME in a positive context when we do NOT want to specify the number or quantity.
• We use MANY with countable nouns when we want to refer to a large but indefinite number

          Examples

• ''I bought some apples''// ''I bought many apples''
• ''I made some friends in the UK''// ''I made many friends in the UK'' ''I’m lucky to have many good friends''
• ''Mary found some money just lying in the parking lot''
• ''How many pieces of pie did you eat?''
• ''My sister bought some books at a market sale''
• 'Many types of marine (1) life live in reef (2) environments''
• ''I’d like to buy some flowers for my girlfriend''
• ''I have so many cousins''
• ''This recipe contains some dairy ingredients''
• ((1) marine = of, found in, or produced by the sea. (2) reef = a line of rocks or sand just above or just below the surface of the sea, often dangerous to ships (*). 

 

        Much vs. Many

         Much + singular, uncountable noun

• Much is used with a singular, uncountable noun.
• e.g., How much money do you need? (money = uncountable noun)
• e.g., How much wood can a woodcutter cut? (''wood'' here is an uncountable noun) (Note: as plural, ‘woods’ means a group of trees, e.g., Shaded from the sun, the woods were cool and quiet). 
• e.g., How much time and work it takes to succeed?  (time and work here are uncountable nouns)

         Many + plural nouns

• Many is used with a plural noun.
• e.g., It takes many good deeds (= intentional acts) to build a good reputation (deeds = plural noun)
• e.g., Many people just do what they think they can do, nothing less, nothing more (people = plural noun)
• e.g., A man can fail many times (''times'' here is a plural noun)

• ''Much'' and ''many'' go with questions or negative clauses the same way as above (i.e., Much + singular uncountable noun/// Many + plural noun)

         Examples

• Will you need much help? (question) (help = uncountable noun)
• How many cats are there?  (question) (cats = plural noun)
• You do not have many positive traits. (negative clause) (traits = plural noun)
• You will not need much time (negative clause) (time = uncountable noun)

 

• ''Much'' and ''many'' also go with positive clauses the same way as above (i.e., Much + singular, uncountable noun/// Many + plural noun)

         Examples

• In positive clauses, much and many are often used with terms like ‘as’, ‘so’ and ‘too’
• e.g., I have so much cheese. (cheese = uncountable noun)
• e.g., Please bring me as much as cheese as you can find. (cheese = uncountable noun)
• e.g., If you spend too much time thinking about her, you will turn mad. (time = uncountable noun)
• e.g., You have as many problems as I do. (problems = plural noun)
• e.g., You have too many problems to deal with. (problems = plural noun)
• e.g., You have so many faults. (faults = plural noun)
• We use "much" with singular, uncountable nouns.'' So, ''much advice'' is correct in the sentence ''...the writer expresses his point of view, and much advice is empirical.''  
• You may see ‘much’ and ‘many’ in positive clauses without the terms ‘as,’ ‘so,’ and ‘too,’ but instead with the phrases ‘a lot of’ or ‘lots of’

         Examples

• e.g., You have a lot of issues to deal with. (= many) (issues = plural noun)
• e.g., You have lots of issues to deal with. (= many) (issues = plural noun)
• e.g., That is a lot of cheese to deal with. (= much) (cheese = uncountable noun)
• e.g., That is lots of cheese to deal with. (= much) (cheese = uncountable noun)

       

•         Reference – Links

•         (Retrieved February 16, 2017):

•         http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/quantifiers/much-many-a-lot-of-lots-of-quantifiers

•         http://grammarist.com/usage/many-much/

•         http://www.learn-english-online.org/Lesson36/Lesson36.htm

•         https://englishlanguagehelp.info/esl/much-vs-many/

•         http://www.grammar.cl/english/how-much-how-many.htm

•         http://www.grammar.cl/Notes/Much_Many_Lot_Few.htm

•         (Retrieved June 21, 2017):

•         http://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/adjectives/some-vs-many/

•         http://www.tolearnenglish.com/exercises/exercise-english-2/exercise-english-85526.php

•         http://www.learn-english-online.org/Lesson38/Lesson38.htm

•         http://www.learn-english-today.com/lessons/lesson_contents/grammar/some_any_a-little_a-few.html

•         https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uZA6pIrwm-I

•         https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/vocabulary/much-many

Conditionals (1^st, 2^nd, and 3^rd type & mixed)

A conditional sentence is a sentence containing the word if. There are three common types of conditional sentences:

a. 1^st Conditional: if + present simple + will (main clause) (to express a simple statement/ fact/ intent)

Conditional one: If clause with present simple tense + main clause with a future tense (‘will’).

It is used to express a simple statement of fact or intent. It is possible to start conditional sentences with the main clause.

e.g., If you help me with my homework, I will help you wash the dishes.

e.g., ‘If I win the lottery, I will buy a new house’ 

or ‘I will buy a new house if I win the lottery’ (opposite)

e.g., If it rains tomorrow, we will not go for a walk.

e.g., You will fail your exams if you do not start studying harder (opposite)

e.g., I will stop talking to you if you continue criticizing me (opposite)

e.g., He will lose all his friends if he continues to undermine them behind their backs (opposite).

 

Normally ''will'' is used in the main clause of the first conditional sentences. However, you can also use the modal verbs ‘may,’ ‘might,’ and ‘could’ when something is a possible consequence (and not a certain one) in the future.

e.g., If you are a good student, I may buy you a new tablet.

e.g., If he trains a little harder, he might win the race.

e.g., If he does not do the project, he could lose the semester

 

b. 2^nd Conditional: if + simple past + would (main clause) (to refer to a present unreal situation or to a situation in the future unlikely to happen)

Conditional two: If clause with simple past tense + main clause with ‘would.’

It refers to a present unreal situation or a situation in the future that the speaker thinks is UNLIKELY to happen. It is possible to start conditional sentences with the main clause.

e.g., ''If you helped me with my homework, I would help you wash the dishes'' (but you did not help me with my homework)

e.g., ‘If I won the lottery/ If I had a lot of money, I would buy a new house’ or the opposite: ‘I would buy a new house if I won the lottery/ if I had a lot of money’ (But I do not have a lot of money/ But it is unlikely to win the lottery)

e.g., ''If it rained tomorrow, we wouldn’t go for a walk.'' (but it is unlikely to rain tomorrow) 

e.g., ''If I were you, I would apologize to her for my behavior'' (but I am not you)

e.g., ''If it snowed tomorrow, we would go to the chalet (1) for skiing'' (but I do not have much hope that it will snow).

((1) chalet (pronounced ˈʃæl.eɪ) = a small wooden house found in mountain areas, especially in Switzerland, or a house built in a similar style, especially one used by people on holiday (**)).

 

You can use modal verbs other than ''would,'' such as ''could and ''might,'' in the main clause of a sentence in the second conditional:

e.g., If no one was late, I could start the presentation on time. (ability)

e.g., If you asked me, I might be able to help you with math (= mathematics). (possibility)

 

c. 3^rd Conditional: if + past perfect + would have (main clause) (to refer to the past and situations that did NOT happen)

Conditional three: If clause with past perfect tense + main clause with ‘would have.

It is used to refer to the PAST and situations that did NOT happen. It is possible to start conditional sentences with the main clause.

e.g., ''If you had helped me with my homework, I would have helped you wash the dishes.'' (but you had not helped me with my homework)

e.g., ''If you had studied harder, you would have passed the test'' (but you did not study hard, so you failed the test)

e.g., ‘If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a new house’ or ‘I would have bought a new house if I had won the lottery’ (opposite) (but I did not win it)

e.g., ''If I had known that she doesn’t like you, I would have informed you'' (but I did not know, so I did not inform you)

e.g., ''If it had rained yesterday, we wouldn’t have gone for a walk.'' (but it did not rain)

e.g., ''If it had snowed yesterday, we would have gone to the chalet for skiing.'' (but it did not snow, so we did not go to the chalet for skiing)

e.g., ''If he hadn't been driving slowly, he would have had an accident'' (but he was driving slowly, so he did not have an accident).

 

Mixed conditionals

Mixed conditionals give a situation and result. However, one is in the past, and the other is in the present:

e.g., ''If I had studied law at university, I would be a prominent lawyer now'' (3^rd + 2^nd conditional) (This is an imaginary past situation (3^rd conditional), with a present imaginary result (2^nd conditional)).

In mixed conditional sentences, the time in the ''if'' clause differs from the time in the main clause. There can be various combinations:

e.g., ‘If I’d gone to college, I might have a better job now.’ (3^rd + 2^nd conditional) (This is an imaginary past situation (3^rd conditional), with a present imaginary result (2^nd conditional)) [I didn’t go to college (past), and I don’t have a very good job (present). This sentence shows the immediate consequences of a past action].

e.g., ‘If I’d won the lottery, I’d be going to Hawaii this summer.’ (3^rd + 2^nd conditional) (This is an imaginary past situation (3^rd conditional), with a future situation unlikely to happen (2^nd conditional)) [I didn’t win the lottery (past), and I am not going to Hawaii (future). This sentence shows the future consequences of a past action].

 

Unreal conditionals (type II + III) sometimes can be mixed; that is, the time of the if clause is different from the one of the main clause.

 

Past → Present

e.g., If I had taken a painkiller, I would not have lower back pain now.

Past → Future

e.g., If I had known that you are going to come at the weekend, I would schedule a welcome party.

Present → Past

e.g., If I had enough money, I could have made this trip to New York

Present → Future

e.g., If I were you, I would be spending my leisure time reading magazines and surfing the web.

Future → Past

e.g., If I were not flying to Michigan, I would have planned a visit to New York.

Future → Present

e.g., If I were taking the test next week, I would be incredibly stressed.

 

Conditionals with inversion

In conditional sentences, we can sometimes replace the 'if' with an inversion:

e.g., Had I known she would be so rude, I would never have met her.

e.g., Had I not been there, he would certainly have died 

 

Reference (Retrieved: October 17, 2017)

http://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/conditional/

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conditional2.htm

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/quick-grammar/conditionals-1

https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/conditional-sentences

http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/rules/cond.htm

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/conditionals-and-wishes/conditionals-if

(Retrieved: February 20, 2018)

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/quick-grammar/conditionals-2

https://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/grammar/mixed_conditionals.htm

https://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/mixed-conditional/

https://www.englishpage.com/conditional/mixedconditional.html

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv344.shtml

http://www.tinyteflteacher.co.uk/learning-english/grammar/mixed-conditionals.html

http://www.esl-lounge.com/student/grammar-guides/grammar-advanced.php

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_sentence

(Retrieved: April 21, 2018)

http://www.grammaring.com/modals-in-the-second-conditional

http://www.grammar.cl/english/first-conditional.htm

https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/5077/modal-verbs-in-conditional-clauses

http://web.mnstate.edu/houtsli/tesl654/verbs/modals/mod1.htm

Wishes

a. Wishes for the present and future

Wish + past simple is used to express that we want a situation in the present or the future to be different.

• e.g., I wish I spoke French (But I do not speak French)
• e.g., I wish it was Sunday (However, it is not Sunday but a weekday (= a day of the week other than Saturday or Sunday))
• e.g., I wish I went on vacation (But I cannot, as I have too much work to do)
• e.g., I wish I had a laptop (But I do not have one)

Wish + past continuous is used to express that we want to be doing a different action in the present or the future 

·         e.g., I wish it wasn’t snowing (But it is snowing)

·         e.g., I wish I was lying on my couch now (But I am at work now)

·         e.g., I wish you weren’t leaving so soon (But you are leaving soon)

b. Wishes about the past 

Wish + past perfect is used to express regret or that we want a situation in the PAST to be different.

·         e.g., I wish she had come to my birthday party (But she did not)

·         e.g., I wish I hadn’t eaten so many sweets (But I ate)

·         e.g., I wish I had studied harder for the exams (But I did not)

c. Wish + would

Wish + would + bare infinitive (without ‘to’) expresses impatience, annoyance, or dissatisfaction with the present action.

·       e.g., I wish he would be polite (I am annoyed because he is not)

·     e.g., I wish you would stop talking so loud with your friend (You are talking loud now, and it is annoying me)

·      e.g., I wish it would stop snowing (I am impatient because it is snowing, and I want to go to the supermarket)

·    e.g., I wish you would stop smoking in my room (It is annoying that you do not smoke outside my room)

d. Wish and want

Wish + infinitive or wish + object + infinitive means ‘want’ in a formal situation.

·         e.g., I do not wish my name (object) to appear (to-infinitive) on the donor’s list

·         e.g., I wish to speak (to-infinitive) to an officer, please

·         e.g., I wish to leave (to-infinitive) now otherwise I will lose my flight 

e. Wish in fixed expressions

·         e.g., I wish you a happy birthday/ a Merry Xmas.

·         e.g., I wish you good luck with your exams.

f. ‘Hope’ instead of ‘wish’

‘Hope’ + present simple may be used instead of ‘wish’ to express that you want something to happen in the FUTURE when you do NOT want a situation to be different, and you do NOT imply impatience or annoyance.

·      e.g., I hope he passes his exams next month (not ‘I wish he were passing his exam next month’)

·    e.g., I hope it is sunny tomorrow as I want to enjoy a stroll (= a short leisurely walk) (not ‘I wish it were sunny tomorrow’)

·   e.g., I hope my flight does not delay tomorrow (not ‘I wish my flight wouldn’t delay tomorrow’).

Reference (Retrieved: October 17, 2017):

·        https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/wishes-and-hypotheses

·        http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/wish.html

·        http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/common-verbs/wish

·        https://www.englishgrammarsecrets.com/wish/menu.php

·        http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-lesson-if-only.php

·        https://blog.abaenglish.com/intermediate-grammar-how-to-use-wish/

·        http://www.eslbase.com/grammar/wish

Inversion

Inversion is when we put the verb before the subject. It is a literary technique in which the normal order of words is reversed for emphasis as it makes a sentence sound striking or unusual. Sentences with inversion are less common in everyday English than in literature. 

 

An example is the following sentence:

I had never seen such an amazing live concert.

Here we have a common word order with a subject (''I''), followed by a negative verb form in the past (''had never seen'') and a modified object (''such an amazing live concert'').

The inversion is:

Never had I seen such an amazing live concert.

 

Another example is: I have never seen such a beautiful lady.

The inversion is:

Never have I seen such a beautiful lady.

In the second example, inversion is used to emphasize the fact that in your whole life, you have not seen such a beautiful lady.

 

The formula for inversion is:

Negative Adverbial or Only/No Expression + Auxiliary or Modal Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Object

e.g., Never had we seen such an amazing movie.

Despite using the past perfect as in the examples above, this formula also remains reliable with the present tense.

e.g., Rarely will I eat sweets during the month.

e.g., Under no circumstances should you leave your sick mother alone.

Other Negative Adverbials include: rarely, not since, hardly, never before, not until, little, at no time, etc.

No/Only Expressions include under no circumstances, not only, no sooner, in no way, only when, etc.

 

When and where we use inversion

a) In normal everyday English, inversion is used:

i.  To make questions: Does he?   Can you?

ii. After ‘so,’ ‘neither,’ ‘nor’:  

‘So do I’

‘Neither do I’

‘Nor do I’

 

b) In written English, especially in a formal style, inversion can be used in the following cases:

i.  After negative adverbial expressions:

e.g., Under no circumstances can we accept credit cards.

e.g., In no way can she be held accountable for the mistake.

e.g., At no time did she say she would come to the party.

e.g., Not until I heard my name did I believe I had won the lottery.

 

ii.  After adverbial expressions of place:

e.g., Around the corner came the postman.

e.g., On the doorstep was a bunch of flowers.

 

iii.  After ‘seldom,’ ‘rarely,’ ‘never,’ and ‘little’:

e.g., Seldom have I seen such a beautiful painting.

e.g., Rarely did she pay me a compliment.

e.g., Never had I felt so sad.

e.g., Little did he imagine how dangerous it would be to travel to the jungle.

 

iv.  After ‘hardly,’ ‘scarcely,’ ‘no sooner,’ when one thing happens after another.

e.g., Hardly had I begun to speak when my wife came in.

e.g., Scarcely had we started our meal when my uncle arrived.

e.g., No sooner had I arrived than the performance started.

 

v.  After adverbial expressions beginning with ‘only’ and ‘not only’:

e.g., Only after the meeting did I realize the importance of the topic

e.g., Only when the plane landed safely did she calm down.

e.g., Not only was the cart slow, but it was also very uncomfortable.

 

vi.  Conditionals with inversion

        In conditional sentences, we can sometimes replace the 'if' with an inversion:

e.g., Had I known she would be so rude, I would never have met her.

e.g., Had I not been there, he would certainly have died.

 

vii.    After exclamations (!) with ‘here’ and ‘there’:

e.g., Here comes the winner of the game!

e.g., There go all our savings!

 

Other examples:

a. I have played little soccer since I was a child.

Little have I played soccer since I was a child (inversion)

b. He had hardly taken a seat before the CEO started to talk.

Hardly had he taken a seat before the CEO started to talk (inversion)

c. Salads are not only healthy food, but they are also tasty.

Not only are salads healthy food, but they are also tasty (inversion)

d. The driver was in no way held responsible for the accident.

In no way was the driver held responsible for the accident (inversion).

 

Reference – Links

Cambridge Advanced Learning Dictionary, paperback with CD-ROM, 4th edition, edited by Colin McIntosh, Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Links (Retrieved: November 20, 2017)

http://www.learn-english-today.com/lessons/lesson_contents/verbs/inversion.html

http://www.testmagic.com/Knowledge_Base/lists/grammar/inversion.htm

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/word-order-and-focus/inversion

http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/inversion.html

http://fullspate.digitalcounterrevolution.co.uk/efl-advanced-grammar/

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/subjects.htm

https://www.englishgrammar.org/inversion/

https://www.thoughtco.com/inversion-definition-1209968

https://www.thoughtco.com/inversion-grammar-term-1691193